Botany and Varietal classification Oryza

Botany

The rice belong to the genus Oryza L. which includes more than twenty species, of which two are cultivated Oryza sativa L., originating in Asia, the most cultivated and Oryza glaberrima Steud. or rice in Casamance, a native of Central Africa.

Oryza sativa from different domestication events that took place around 5000 BC. AD in northern India, and around the Sino-Burmese border. The parent wild rice Oryza rufipogon is (formerly forms annual Oryza rufipogon Oryza were appointed Nivar). Not to be confused with rice, wild rice appointed botanical genus Zizania.

Oryza glaberrima from the domestication of Oryza barthii. We do not know where domestication took place, but it appears to date from before 500 BC. J.-C.. In recent decades, this rice is less and less educated in Africa, where the Asian rice is increasingly preferred. Today, varieties glaberrima-sativa hybrid, combining the qualities of both species are distributed under the name "Nerica".

Varietal classification.

Rice is cultivated in many varieties, several thousand, who have historically been classified into three groups: short spikelet to japonica, indica spikelet to very long, and an intermediate group formerly javanica.

Today, it ranks in two Asian rice subspecies, indica and japonica, on molecular basis , but also to reproductive incompatibility. These two groups correspond to two domestication events that took place on both sides of the Himalayas. The rice formerly named "javanica" belong to the japonica group. Sometimes called "tropical japonica.

The subspecies indica indica includes classics, long grain fragrant rice (basmati and Sadr), suitable for rice cultivation "dry" (without flooding of the field) and ecotypes floating. The sub-species japonica comprises the temperate and tropical japonica (formerly javanica), ecotypes "aus" and ecotypes floating.

Thousands of existing rice varieties are sometimes classified according to their degree of maturity, depending on the length of growth cycle (on average 160 days). It speaks of very early varieties (90 to 100 days), early, semi-early, late, very late (over 210 days). This method of classification, it is useful from an agronomic has no taxonomic value.

The "wild rice" is a kind neighbor the mischief (Zizania aquatica L., born in the northern United States and Canada).
A rice plant

The genus Oryza includes about twenty different species. Many classifications of these species in complex tribes in series, etc.. have been proposed, and overlap more or less the one the other. The classification proposed here has the advantage of being simple, and incorporates the most recent work. The basis of these classifications is the organization of the genome (ploidy level of homology of the genomes, etc..), But is consistent with the morphological characteristics observed in these species.

* Complex sativa. In this group are two species of cultivated rice, wild relatives and close species.

o Oryza sativa Linn., Asian cultivated rice.
Oryza sativa f. o spontanica auct.

o Oryza rufipogon Griff., is the parent assumed the crop species Oryza sativa, Asian rice. Some individuals of this species are annuals, others are perennial. Traditionally, the form of annual Oryza rufipogon Oryza Nivar was appointed. The species name should no longer be used today because the annual and perennial forms are quite interfertiles, and do not form two distinct populations. To remove any ambiguity, we write sometimes Oryza rufipogon sensu lato to describe this species in its new meaning to the form perennial on the annual form (ex Oryza Nivar)
o Oryza meridionalis Ng.
o Oryza glumaepatula comes from South America. This species can not be distinguished from Oryza rufipogon on a morphological basis. However, it is a different species because the plants dOryza glumaepatula and dOryza rufipogon are not interfertiles.
o Oryza glaberrima Steud., rice Casamance. It was probably domesticated in West Africa from the wild species Oryza annual barthii. Oryza glaberrima is cultivated in West Africa (Senegal to Lake Chad) then qu'Oryza barthii is present in East Africa (Tanzania) and southern (Zambia).
o Oryza barthii A. Chev., Probable parent wild rice in Casamance (Oryza glaberrima). This species also exists in the form of weeds, some of which have historically been named Oryza stapfii A. Chev. Are also found in the literature the name Oryza breviligulata which means Oryza barthii.
o Oryza longistaminata Chev. & Roch.

* Complex officinalis. The other major group includes species ecology more diverse species are found growing in sunny areas flooded permanently or temporarily, but also include species growing in the woods or in areas not flooded.
o Oryza officinalis Wall.
o Oryza minuta Presl
o rhizomatous Oryza Vaughan, is limited to the island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka).
Oryza eichingeri o Peter
o Oryza punctata Kotschy ex Stende.
o Oryza latifolia Beauv.
o Oryza alta Swallen
o Oryza australiensis Domin
o grandiglumis Oryza (Don.) Prod.

Two other smaller groups in number of species are described in the literature:

* Complex ridleyi
o Oryza ridleyi Hook. f.
o Oryza longiglumis P. Jansen

* Complex aggregates
o Oryza granulate Nees.
o Oryza neocaledonica Morat, a species similar to Oryza granulate which only grows in New Caledonia (endemic).
o Oryza meyeriana (Zoll. & Mon.) Baill

Finally, the two species are not grouped with any other:

* Oryza schlechteri Pilqer - This species is close ridleyi complex, but would not.
* Oryza brachyantha Chev. is completely independent.

Oryza sativa L.

Rice is a cereal of the family Poaceae or Gramineae grown in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate fruit or caryopsis, rich in starch. It means all the plants of the genus Oryza, including two species are cultivated: Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima, rice or Casamance.

Rice is a fundamental element of the diet of many populations of the world including Asia and Africa. This is the first global cereal for human consumption, the second after maize for the tonnage harvested. Rice is the foundation of Asian cuisine, including Chinese and Indian. In Europe it is grown in the Po plain (Italy), in the Camargue (France), Spain, Russia, Greece, Portugal, Ukraine and Bulgaria.

Rice is cultivated in various ways. Rainfed rice without flooding the field, differs from the flooded rice where the water level is not controlled, and irrigated rice production and the availability of water and its level is controlled by the grower. A field-grown rice is called paddy.

Depending on the farmers, you get white rice (China, India, France), rice cargo (China), yellow (Iran), purple (Laos), glutinous rice (China, Indonesia, Laos) ... consumed in grain, in dough, soup, and dessert (rice pudding) for example.

Rice is an annual plant with glabrous erect or prostrate stubble height vary from less than one meter to five meters for floating rice. This plant is susceptible to tillering, forming a bouquet of stems, fibrous roots. Flowers in spikelets uniflorous are grouped into panicles 20 to 30 cm, erect or pending. The fruit is a caryopsis glumelles wrapped in two big, tough and adherent, the whole forming the paddy. The density of raw white rice in bulk is about 0.9g/cm3.

Depending on the texture of the caryopsis, there are varieties ordinary integument to white, more often, or red, or glutinous (sticky rice or sweet rice). The African rice varieties are generally red husk.

Vegetative multiplication

Vegetative reproduction is a reproduction of living creatures aseksual (without cell fusion sex male and female). Vegetative reproduction can occur naturally or artificial.
Natural vegetative reproduction is aseksual which occurred without the intervention of other parties such as human.

On plants
• Stem Tuber. For example: sweet potato, potato

• Layer Tuber. Example: onion, garlic

• Root Tuber. Example: carrot, cassava

• Stolon. Example: strawberry

• Rhizoma. Examples: ginger

• Shoot. Example: coconut

• Shoot adventif. Examples: Kalanchoe pinnata

In the animal
• Shoot. Example: Hydra, jellyfish, Porifera

• fragmentation. Example: Planaria, sea roses

• split self. Examples: amoeba

• Parthenogenesis. Example: insects such as bees, leaf louse

Artificial Vegetatif
Artificial Vegetative is aseksual reproduction happened because the support of others as human beings.
• Cutting
• Layering
• grafting
• Enten
• inclining
• cloning

Multiplication of Plants

The multiplication of plants is not a miracle but a "know-how" which is available to everyone. It yields many plants without spending a fortune.

You will say: "Yes, but you have green fingers to multiply plants! . Maybe not, since you can dare to succeed. Dare to plant forsythia branches directly hard earth to complete a rustic fence. Dare marcottes a stem of honeysuckle trailing parterre to go back further. Dare to divide a clump of aster to multiply by ten. Spring comes, throw you on the water and you learn very quickly to divide, multiply, Marcotte, cutting ... all plants.
Cutting heads geraniums, fuchsias, chamomile, begonias ...

With a cutter, cut under the eye end of a sapling. You can also break the stem between the fingers at a node. The cuttings must be between 5 and 10 cm. Gently remove the leaves from the bottom of 5 cm. Prick the cutting in a pot about 1 to 2 cm in length in a mixture of potting soil cut with sand. Water. Style cuttings in a plastic bottle cut at the base. Place your cuttings to heat and light.

Wicker cuttings in water is fun!

Cut sections of 10 to 15 cm and immerse them in water with a piece of charcoal. Install the cuttings near a window to heat. Two weeks later appear small roots and leaves. You can replant later in the ground or leaving them inside curiosity. Above all continue to keep them in water.

Cutting the roots of Helianthum, poppies, phlox, acanthus, hollyhocks ...

Pull the plants and remove the soil around the roots. Cut the roots into pieces 5 to 10 cm long (depending on the species). Prick the cuttings vertically in a humus soil.

Marcotte your vines

Choose a low branch. Place a bowl or pot near the plant. Remove the leaves against the veneer on the ground and bury the stem slightly over 5 to 10 cm. Put pebbles on top of the stick or hair pins to keep the rod down.

Divide asters, phlox, solidagos, leucanthème, helenium, rhubarb ...

With a spade or a knife, separate the roots of the strain for several small plants. They must have a root and a bud for perennials at rest and stem and roots for plants. Easy ... this method is available to everyone!

Physiology and Development of Maize

Germination and emergence Germination triggered by the imbibition of the grain results in a mobilization of reserves and scutellum of the albumen and the development of radicle and seminal roots that appear secondary level node scutellaire. At the other end of the embryo develops gemmule the form of the coleoptile which pushes up and forms a plateau tillering. At this level form a first set of roots, stems and sometimes secondary and coleoptile penetrates soil and opens, releasing the first leaves. From this stage, the young corn plant becoming autotrophic.

Vegetative phase

However, the root system of maize is characterized by roots (called root surface), which collect water and nutrients to the plant in the most superficial layers of the soil. This imbalance in the extraction of mineral resources that the crop is very demanding in nitrogen fertilizer and water in proportion to the yield it provides, which poses serious environmental problems in temperate regions.

In temperate areas of the northern hemisphere, the corn is planted in April - May and blooms in July - August Grains reach maturity in October - November. Harvesting takes place when the ears have lost their green color. The entire plant can be harvested and ensiled before maturity of the grain (in September).

Natural resistance

Young corn plants accumulate a particular substance, the hydroxamic acid (2.4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-2H-1.4-benzoxazin-2 (4H)-one or DIMBOA), which creates a natural resistance against a variety of enemies of the plant: insects, fungi and bacteria. We find this substance, DIMBOA, even among related species, including wheat. DIMBOA confers with the young corn plants resistant to the corn borer (family Crambidae). However, this resistance declines rapidly as the plant has passed the stage six sheets.

When maize is attacked by larvae of the caterpillar pests like the corn borer, it emits volatile molecules that attract predators of insect pest parasitoids such as Trichogramma.

Reproductive phase

Photosynthesis and yield potential

Maize and other tropical grasses (such as sugar cane or sorghum, for example), is part of the plant known as "C4" . These plants perform photosynthesis them more effectively than do the other plants (so-called "C3"). According to various studies the efficiency of photosynthesis (ie the transformation of light energy into organic matter) from corn is about 5 to 6% in the best conditions expérimementales . The practical performance depends on climatic conditions, sunshine and temperature (assuming that the nutrition of the plant - water, nitrogen, etc.. - Is not coercion), and leaf area index. This index is the ratio of leaf surface to the ground reflects the capacity of the plant to intercept light radiation and can routinely achieve five or six in the southwest of France, even ten to twelve. Therefore, maize is able to accumulate 600 kg of dry matter per hectare per day, which corresponds to a grain yield of 200 quintals . The record really known was established on a farm in Illinois (United States) with 235 q / ha.

Maize Classification

The scientific name of the species is Zea mays subsp. mays. The binomial name was assigned by Linnaeus in 1753 who created a new genus for this plant very different from other grasses known at the time. The generic name, Zea, comes from a Greek name, zeia, which in antiquity meant a kind of wheat, probably spelled .

It belongs to the family Poaceae and subfamily Panicoideae (such as sorghum and sugar cane and unlike the other major cereals, wheat, rice, barley, rye, etc.., Which are sub - family Pooideae).

The current classification of the species and related species resulting from the work of Iltis and Doebley published in 1980. They are grouped in the tribe Maydeae (sometimes grouped in the tribe Andropogoneae) which is distinguished by the monoécie, that is to say, although the plants are bisexual, the sexes are separated in flowers and often in separate inflorescences. There are genres in September:

* Five from the Old World: Coix, Chionachne, Polytoca, Sclerachne and Trilobachne;
* Two U.S. origin:
o Zea, which is characterized by its inflorescences separated males and females and is divided into two sections:

+ Section Zea, which includes a species: Zea mays, itself subdivided into four sub-species [8], corn and three annual teosinte:

# Zea mays subsp. mays (L.) Iltis, corn itself,

# Zea mays subsp. mexicana (Schrader) Iltis,
# Zea mays subsp. parviglumis Iltis & Doebley,
# Zea mays subsp. huehuetenangensis (Iltis & Doebley) Doebley, sometimes considered a variety of the previous one.
+ Lush section which includes four species of teosinte:
# Zea diploperennis Iltis, Doebley & R. Guzman, who easily hybridize with maize,

# Zea luxurians (Durieu) R. M. Bird,
# Zea nicaraguensis Iltis & B. F. Benz

# Zea perennis (Hitchc.) Reeves & Mangelsdorf,
o Tripsacum, very similar kind which includes seventeen species, some of which are capable of producing hybrids with corn, divided into two sections, with five fasciculata Tripsacum species and twelve species [9], all perennials.

The subdivision of the species Zea mays into sub-species is debatable, some authors classifying Teosinte annual six races: Nobogame, Central Plateau, Durango, Chalco, Balsas and Huehuetenango, instead of three sub-species.

All species and subspecies of the genus Zea have the same number of chromosomes

(2n = 20) except for Zea perennis, which is tetraploid (2n = 40).

Cultivation Of Maize

Maize (also known as wheat from India to Canada) is a tropical herbaceous annual plant of the family Poaceae, widely grown as cereal grains rich in starch, but also as a fodder plant. The term also refers to the grain of corn itself, the size of a pea.

This species, native to Central America, South America and North America, was the staple diet of American Indians before the arrival in America of Christopher Columbus. The plant was deified in the ancient civilizations of Central and South America and was known among the tribes of North America as one of three sisters. Introduced in Europe in the sixteenth century, it is now cultivated worldwide and has become the first World cereal to rice and wheat. With the advent of hybrid seeds in the first half of the twentieth century, and transgenic seeds recently, corn is the symbol of intensive agriculture.

Its common name is the most common corn. This term comes from the Spanish maíz, itself borrowed the language of the Taíno of Haiti who grew. Many other names have been applied to this grain, particularly wheat Indian wheat and wheat Turkey Barbary. Obsolete for the most part, these names reflect the confusion that has long prevailed in Europe about the origin of the plant.

* Scientific name: Zea mays of the family Poaceae, grasses.
* Synonyms: sweet corn: sweet corn, wheat Barbary, Guinea wheat, wheat in Turkey, Indian wheat, popcorn: fulminant corn, pearl maize, popcorn ...
* Sweet corn: English: sugar corn, sugar maize, sweet corn, German: Zuckermais, Süßmais, Korn Welsch, Spanish maiz dulce, Italian: grano turco, but sweet, Dutch: corn, turksche tarwe
* Popcorn: English: pop corn, German: Puffmais, Perlmais, Spanish Reventón maiz, maiz Palomero, Italian, but ibrido, Dutch: pofmais

Description

The corn is an annual herb, variable size (from 40 cm to 5 m, usually between one and three meters to the commonly cultivated varieties)

The single stem and large diameter is full, woody and trained several internodes of about twenty centimeters separated by as many nodes. At each node is a leaf inserted alternately on one side and the other of the stem. The leaves are typical of grasses, but large (up to 10 cm wide and one meter long), have a sheath through which the stem and leaf blade elongated ribbon veins parallel. At the base of the blade is the ligule has a few millimeters high. Unlike other grasses, corn foot does not install, however it is sometimes secondary stems, of limited size, at the base of the main stem.

The root system consists of a very large number of adventitious roots that arise on the nodes at the base of the stem, forming successive crowns, both buried on the nodes on the first air nodes in an area where the internodes are very short . These roots form a system specification that can reach a depth greater than one meter.

Flowers, another characteristic that distinguishes the maize and other grasses, and are grouped into unisexual male and female inflorescences composed of spikelets of two flowers.

The female flowers are clustered in spikes inserted into the leaf axils median (the largest). The axis of the ear, called the raid, is 10 to 20 rows of female flowers. A single flower per spikelet is fertile. It is surrounded by modified leaves, the husk, dry at maturity. At the top end, leaving the husk exceed stigma filiform or bristles. An ear can hold about 500 grains at maturity, sometimes miles. One foot gives rise to three or four ears, but only one reaches full development.

The male flowers are clustered in a terminal panicle that appears after the last sheet. The panicle is composed of spikelets each comprising two flowers three stamens.

The grain of corn is a caryopsis, consisting of three parts of different origins:

* Embryo, commonly called "germ", located at the base of the grain which includes the embryo itself or gemmule and the scutellum, ie the cotyledon, as the reserve in which the plant draws its initial energy, the embryo comes from the egg formed following the merger of the nucleus of a spermatozoon and the oosphère;
* Albumen, tissue reserves, mainly composed of starch grains, except the peripheral layer beneath the pericarp contains aleurone grains rich in proteins, this fabric is merging the nucleus of a sperm and two nuclei of the central cell (that is a fabric 3n chromosomes);
* The outer, thin, fibrous membrane translucent, issue of the pericarp of the ovary (so in reality a part of the fruit and not the seed).

The starch of the endosperm occurs in two forms: amylose, linear polymer of glucose, and amylopectin, forming a polymer molecule branched. According to the method of assembly of these molecules causes the formation of starch chalky, crumbly structure, located somewhere near its center, or the horny starch, or vitreous, to dense and compact structure, located in the periphery and contributes to maintain the external shape of the grain. The varying proportions of these two forms of starch can distinguish different races. It's the horny starch that gives color to the grain of corn, usually yellow, but white, red, black, while the starch is still chalky white.

WINDAGE TO PLANT BREEDING

Wind is air moving which resulted from by is earth giration as well as caused by pressure difference of air(pressure is high to low accentual) in vinicity. Wind have tightly relationship with sunshine because area which hit many presentation of [light/ray]s dance will have higher level temperature and also lower air pressures from other areas in vinicities causing cause the happening of air currents. Wind also earn because of movement of object causing push air in vinicity for moving to other place. Wind happened caused by pressure difference of air temperature difference or air at one particular area or regional. This thing relate to level of the sun heat energy which in received by surface of earth. At one particular region, area receiving bigger the sun heat energy will have hotter air temperature and lower tending to air pressure. So that there will be air pressure and temperature difference between areas receiving bigger heats energy with slimmer other areas receive hot energy, as a result there will be air current at the region. Artificial wind in can be made by using various appliances start from whoes simples [so/till] complicated. Simply wind earn we create x'self by using palm, fan broilled, newspaper, magazine, and others by the way of wagged. While complicatedly wind earning we making with electrics fan, hand dryer, hair dryer, tire pump, and others. Naturally we can apply mouth, nose, anus hole, etcetera to create wind. In agriculture, especially plant breeding of wind share to assist pollination at crop which in mentioning anemogami. Pollination, or polinasi,S at surface of pistil. In part big flower, event of this means" fall at part of stigma". Pollination is essential part from seed plant reproduction process. Pollination succeeding will be followed soon with growing of powder reed entering pistil channel towards ovule. In ovule happened the next important event, pollination.

WATERMELON

Watermelon is fruit crop in the form of herb which emergence creep which in English called as watermellon. Watermelon come from subtropical and tropical drought area of African, then grow at full speed to state like : South African, Chinese, Indonesia and Japan. Watermelon included kedalam gourds set of relatives ( cucurbitaceae) which at the origin area is hardly taken a fancy hardly taken a fancy by human/animal in the continent, because many are aqueous, so that the spreading become quickly. Conducting watermelon crop for exploited as fresh fruit, but there is exploiting young cantaloup and leaf for vegetables

Cantaloup ( Citrullus vurgaris. Scharrd) planted erstwhile of farmers in Indonesia have the character of diploid and a lot of containing seed available for made by kuaci. Crop which including set of relatives Cucurbitaceae is not Indonesia original crop, but coming from the Dark Continent, then immigrate to India and China. Now this plant is important crop in tropic area is like Indonesia.

To yield cantaloup non seed, triploid crop have to be traversed with the pollination diploid watermelon crop assisted by man. Gist;sari powder at very few seedlessness watermelon stam inate flower, even frequently [there] no so that unable to do self pollination. Therefore, pollination of seedlessness watermelon ( triploid) require stam inate flower from seed watermelon ( diploid). For supporting requirement of stam inate flower ( diploid) required 10% from amount of plant population of triploids. Feel sweet fruit with contents of very compatible high water if served as pelepas thirst, and generally presented as fresh fruits.

Crop Botany

Kingdom : Plantae
Divisi : Spermatophyta
Subdivisi : Angiospermae
Class : Dicotyledone
Ordo : Cucurbitales
Famili : Cucurbitaceae
Genus : Citrullus
Species : Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.

Watermelon ( Citrullus lanatus, tribe ketimun-timunan or Cucurbitaceae), this crop creep but he have no to form adventive root and cannot climb. Spreadth reach can reach floging metre. Nature of watermelon crop botany have the character of creeper, have owner appliance like contorting. Watermelon crop root have lateral root and main root a few, but rather in.

This annual crop grow creeper above land (of) or climb with appliances or suckers. Watermelon crop have soft bar, facet and hirsute with length reach 1,5-5 m. Emergence sucker from leaf axil and have branch reach 2-3 fruit .

Watermelon crop have elliptical unique leaf with surging edge and sharp-pointed back part. Basal of watermelon leaf incise with length reach 8-15 cm and 5-8 wide cm. Watermelon leaf handle in form of cylindrical with length of 3-7 cm, green chromatic and have bone system which fin with furry surface.

The flower of rust colored perfection, small ( diameter of 3 cm). Watermelon is andromonocius monoclinic, that is having two forsythia at one plant : stam inate flower which only having stamen ( stamen), and effeminate homosexual flower/ hermaphrodite, what having pistil and stamen (pistillun). Effeminate homosexual flower can be recognized with existence of ovary ( ovary) flower jetty part in the form of magnification in form of oval.

Cantaloup have husk which firm, condensed green chromatic or young green with old greens arrays. Depended the cultivar, the kernel having water is rose colored or turning yellow. This crop enough dryness resistant would especially if have entered a period of fruit-set.

Seed form of long, flat, the colour is black and white, turned yellow, or auburn. There is also of seedlessness ( seedless). Seed treated which have called as kuaci. Way of the Create, collect seed, then put to the sun and sangrai. After chilling, soak in brine all day long, then put to the sun returning the sun heat. Watermelon besides eaten as fresh fruit also drinkable as juice. Propagation of watermelon crop with seed.

AGRICULTURE

I think agriculture is a farming planting activities, the aim is to produce food and agro products, how to utilize the resources plants and animals.
Agricultural activities that include farming culture plant and maintain the livestock is the oldest human culture. But compared with the history of human existence, including farming activities are still new. Previously, only men hunt animals and gather food for consumption.
Related to agriculture, farming is a set of activities carried out in the moral resources (plants and animals). Farmer is a holding for the agricultural business, as an example "of tobacco farmers" or "fish farming". Especially for animals of cattle (livestock) is called the breeder. Scientists and other parties involved in the improvement of agricultural methods and the application is also considered to be involved in agriculture.
The world's largest population in the main cutting edge areas in the scope of agriculture, but agriculture contributes only 4% of world PBB.
Coverage of the object of agriculture in Indonesia include the cultivation of crops (including food crops, horticulture, and crops), forestry, animal husbandry, and fisheries. As can be seen, this classification is done based on the object budidayanya:
• cultivation of crops, plants and objects with a grown on land which is intensively cultivated,
• forestry, plants with an object (usually a tree) and grown on land that the wild,
• livestock, with the object to dry land animals (especially all the vertebrata and amfibia except fish),
• fisheries, with the object of the animals (fish, amfibia and all non-vertebrata).
The division of higher education in a way to follow this division, although in reality an agricultural business can involve many objects this together as a form of efficiency and increase profits. Consideration will result in environmental sustainability aspects of the conservation of natural resources also learned in the agricultural sciences.